Leadership Essay: Holistic Leadership Development and Teaching Organization
Review of Leadership Theories with respect to
Holistic Leadership Development and
Teaching Organization
Jeong Hwan Choi, MBA
Doctorate Student, Human Resource Education
University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign
351 Education, 1310 South Sixth Street
(217) 819 1040
Nov. 30, 2007
Executive Summary
There are lots of leadership
theories to explain the leaders’ role, function, and effectiveness. Although it’s
very hard to find out the universal principles of leadership, we must have an
own point of view of leadership. In this sense, I propose BMBS (Body / Mind /
Brain / Spirit) model and concept of teaching organization and review leadership theories with respect to holistic
leadership development approach and teaching organization.
InTRODUCtion
Concept of Holistic Leadership Development
Holistic
leadership development is the integrative approach for developing Brain, Mind,
Body, and Spirit. . Quatro, Waldman, and Galvin (2007) proposed a new
leadership model, named ACES which represented four leadership domains;
Analytical, Conceptual, Emotional, and Spiritual. They insisted that these four
different leadership domains of leaders should be equally developed to engage
subordinate either explicitly or implicitly. However the concept of holistic
education was originated from Bloom’s taxonomy which is widely used in adult
learning (Bloom, B. 1956, Krathwohl, D 1937, Simpson, E. 1972). In the Table 1,
the comparison of the ACES leadership domain and revised Bloom’s Taxonomy are
presented. In the ACES model, psychomotor factor are missing, while there is no
spiritual factor in the bloom’s taxonomy. Probably these discrepancies come
from the difficulty for segregation from holistic or integrative
characteristics of leadership education.
To
overcome these discrepancies, I hope to propose BMBS leadership development
model. The BMBS model is composed four factors: Brain, Mind, Body, and Spirit.
Table 1 Comparison of ACES Model and Bloom’s Taxonomy
ACES
Leadership Taxonomy |
Bloom’s
Taxonomy |
||
Analytical |
Quantitative
analysis Logical
reasoning Decisiveness |
Cognitive (Knowledge) |
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation |
Conceptual |
Qualitative
analysis Creativity Curiosity |
||
Emotional |
Persuasive
communication Empathic
understanding Self-monitoring |
Affective (Attitude) |
Receiving Responding Valuing Organizing Characterizing |
|
|
Psychomotor (Skills) |
Perception Set Guided
response Mechanism Complex
overt Adaptation Origination |
Spiritual |
Self-reflection Integrity Mediatative
thinking |
|
|
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework for BMBS Model
Table 2
Comparison of BMBS, ACES and Bloom’s Taxonomy
BMBS
Model |
ACES
Leadership Taxonomy |
Bloom’s
Taxonomy |
|||
Domain |
Function |
Verb |
Output |
Domain |
Domain |
Brain |
Data processing |
Think |
Knowing Organizing |
Analytical |
Cognitive (Knowledge) |
Conceptual |
|||||
Mind |
Decision making |
Decide |
Evaluating Characterizing |
Emotional |
Affective (Attitude) |
Body |
Doing |
Behave |
Realizing Implementing |
|
Psychomotor (Skills) |
Spirit |
Interacting |
Learn & Teach |
Integrating Synthesizing |
Spiritual |
|
The BMBS model is based on the
functions of human activities. Brain acts as a processor: analyzing,
calculating, questioning, and reasoning. Mind builds up decision. Once the
external or internal stimuli processed in brain, mind take it and evaluates,
sorts, characterizes, and decides something, then body realize the decision.
Previous three functions are related with individuals. However, leadership is
an active communication with followers, organizations, and other people. So, a
certain media which can transfer or accept one’s idea (Brain), emotion (Mind),
and behavior (Body) is required. Peter Drucker (1954, pp. 144 ~ 160) named the
media as the spirit. He also said that the spirit should be practiced to insure
the right spirit throughout the organization. I may say that spirit can be
shaped by learning and teaching with interacting others.
Leaders
should have the high capabilities in four different domains of BMBS model. And
I propose that four BMBS domains are mutually interlinked and it can be
practiced and trained in a systematic way to achieve the wholeness of
leadership. By using four domains proposed in this chapter will be used as
metrics for evaluating leadership theories.
Tichy (2002) insisted that winning organizations
are teaching organization in his book of ‘Leadership Engine: How winning
companies build leaders at every level.’ Comparing to the Peter Senge’s (1999) learning organization, teaching
organization is requesting for more active responsibility and strong commitment
to leaders in developing other leaders. As presented previous chapter, if we
can define the spirit is the media of transferring active communication between
a leader and followers, learning and teaching are key processes of spirit
domain. In particular, accepted that teaching is the best strategy for
learning, teaching others and transform them into leaders is the most important
actions in leadership development. In this sense, I hope to apply the teaching
organization as a metric for leadership theory evaluation. I choose three
metrics from Tichy’s teaching organization concepts. The first one is the
current leader’s direct responsibility of teaching all level of future leaders.
The second one is the energizing or motivating all level of future leaders. The
Third one is the strong commitment in teaching others, and the final one is These
three things are quite related with the “Spirit” of an organization.
Organizational spirit can be practiced through teaching and learning in both
individual and group, which can be the differentiated competitive advantages of
organizations.
Assessment Tool for Leadership Theory Evaluation
Integrating
with BMBS model and concept of teaching organization, I suggest the assessment
tool for leadership theory evaluation as Table 3. The tool is composed two main
categories. Individually BMBS model is applied to explain the internalizing
process of leadership, and externally teaching organization concepts are
applied to measure the effectiveness of leadership theories. Moreover, the
spirit will be evaluated with special care, because the spirit intermediate
individuals and organization.
Table 3 Assessment tool for Leadership Theory Evaluation
Leadership Approach & Theory: |
|||
Concept of the Theory: |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level (BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
|
|
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
|
|
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor? |
|
|
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
|
|
Organizational Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
|
|
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
|
|
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity? |
|
|
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
|
|
Evaluation of leadership theories
In
this chapter, nine leadership approaches and theories, listed in List 1, which
were presented and discussed through classes will be evaluated with according
to the presented assessment tool.
List 1 Leadership Approach and Theories
1. Trait Approach
2. Skills Approach
3. Style Approach
4. Situational Approach
5. Contingency Theory
6. Path-Goal Theory
7. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
8. Transformational Leadership
9. Team Leadership
1. Trait Approach
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Trait Approach |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: The trait
approach has its root in leadership theory that suggested that certain people
were born with special traits that made them great leaders. Because it was
believed that leaders and non-leaders could be differentiated by a universal
set of traits, through the 20th century researchers were
challenged to identify the definitive traits of leaders |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Since the theory is focusing on innate ability of intelligence,
development of leadership is not much applicable. But the theory is
significantly concern about the ability of knowledge and it seems the fairly
concern about developing knowledge of leaders. |
Fair |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
The theory explains that leaders’ personalities are already set by nature,
and it’s not be trained or changed. However, the theory is trying applying
the development of emotions of leaders. |
Fair |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
No psychomotor skills are addressed. |
Poor |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
The theory is focusing on leaders’ innate traits but it is not addressing
the relationship with others. However, it concerns with the ability of
sociability of leaders |
Fair |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Trait approach is stressing the individual ability or personality of
leaders. So, it’s not easy to find and responsibility of developing others |
Poor |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Even though Kirkpatric and Locke mentioned about motivation factors of
leadership, the theory is not much concern about the developing the
motivation skills |
Poor |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Referring to the trait approach, integrity is one of the important traits
for leaders |
Fair |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
Due to limiting the point on leaders, the theory is not much applicable
for developing leaders at every level |
Poor |
Comments
Overall,
the trait approach is concern about individual innate abilities or
characteristics of leaders. So the application of the theory for BMBS model
& Teaching organization is somewhat possible, but the application of it is
quite limited.
2. Skills Approach
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Skills Approach |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: The skills
approach is a leader-centered perspective that emphasizes the competencies of
leaders. It is best represented in the early work of Katz (1955) on the
three-skill approaches [technical, human, conceptual] and the more recent
work of Mumford and his colleagues (2000), who initiated the development of
comprehensive skills model of leadership. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Focusing on general and crystallized cognitive ability. |
Excellent |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not much concerning individual emotional skills but emphasize social
judgment skills |
Fair |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Not much psychomotor skills are addressed |
Poor |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Addressed the environmental influences of leaders |
Good |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Skills approach concern the relationship with followers but it is usually
explained by leader’s skill |
Good |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Motivation skills and career experiences are fairly addressed as one of
social skills |
Good |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Leaders’ integrity about subordinate is fairly addressed |
Good |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
Skills approach is focusing on developing competencies of leader, and it
is matched with the BMBS / Teaching organization application. But still it
has some limitation especially in developing leaders in all level, because it
is quite leader centric approach. |
Good |
Comments
The
skills approach is good to apply it to BMBS/Teaching organization model. But
still the model has limits on developing leaders in all level, because it is
quite leader centric not much concern about subordinates and followers.
3. Style Approach
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Style Approach |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: The style
approach is strikingly different from the trait approach and skills approach
to leadership because the style approach focuses on what leaders do rather
than who leaders are. It suggests that leaders engage in tow primary types of
behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. How leaders combine
these two types of behaviors to influence others is the central focus of the
style approach. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not concerned about leaders cognitive ability development |
Poor |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not concerning about developing emotions |
Poor |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Very focused on the leaders’ behavior |
Excellent |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
One from two axis of leadership grid is the concern for people. But it’s
not much specified or crystallized one. |
Fair |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Not much concerned about leader’s responsibility for developing others |
Poor |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Not concerned about motivating others |
Poor |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Not much concerned about developing authenticity of others |
Poor |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
Style approach is quite focusing on leaders’ behavior not on developing
traits or organization. |
Poor |
Comments
Style
approach is not fit for applying BMBS/Teaching organization. But the theory’s high
concern of leadership behavior is applicable to develop leader’s psychomotor
skills.
4. Situational Approach
Leadership Approach
& Theory: Situational Approach |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: Situational
leadership is a prescriptive approach to leadership that suggests how leaders
can become effective in many different types of organizational settings
involving a wide variety of organizational task. This approach provides a
model that suggests to leaders how they should behave based on the demands of
a particular situation. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not much concern about developing knowledge of leader. |
Poor |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not much concern about developing emotional competencies of leader |
Poor |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Focusing on matching leaders’ behavior onto different situation
(Supportive behavior vs. Directive behavior) |
Excellent |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Addressed improvement of relationship by changing leaders’ style, but it
is not much concern about personal development of leader |
Good |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Situational approach stressed on the developing subordinates. |
Excellent |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Concerned about motivating followers, but its is not an active tasks for
leaders but optimizing process to match up one’s style |
Good |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Suggesting specific follower development methods |
Excellent |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
Situational approach is focusing on developing organizations. And it is
quite well describing the leadership role w.r.t. teaching organization
concept. But The approach is not much detail in developing leaders’ knowledge
and emotions. |
Good |
Comments
Situational
approach is quite well matched with the concept of teaching organization.
Meanwhile this approach is not much concern about developing leader
him/herself.
5. Contingency Theory
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Contingency Theory |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: Contingency
theory represents a shift in leadership research from focusing on only the
leader to looking at the leader in conjunction with the situation in which
the leader works. It is a leader-match theory that emphasizes the importance
of matching a leaders’ style with the demands of a situation. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not much concern about developing knowledge of leader. |
Poor |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not much concern about developing emotional competencies of leader |
Poor |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Focusing on matching leaders’ behavior onto different situation. But the
model do not addressing self-development of leaders |
Good |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Much concern about relationship and atmosphere of organization. In
addition, the model specifies the subordinate characteristics and task
characteristics. But this model is not much focused on developing leader’s
own spirit |
Good |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Even though the theory mentions about the responsibility, it do not
explain the active role of leader for developing others. |
Poor |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
The theory is recommending passive action of leaders to match him/her
with followers’ situations. |
Fair |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Through optimizing leadership style, they leader can get authenticity
from subordinates, but it’s not an active action. |
Fair |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
Contingent theory is not concern about the active role of leaders’
efforts to develop organization, but it suggests the passive process to match
leaders themselves into certain situations. |
Poor |
Comments
Although
contingency theory is practically feasible, it is almost impossible to apply
BMBS/Teaching organization model, because it do not address the possibility of
changing leaders or organizations.
6. Path-Goal Theory
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Path-Goal Theory |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: Path-goal theory
was developed to explain how leaders motivate subordinates to be productive
and satisfied with their work. It is a contingency approach to leadership because
effectiveness depends on the fit between the leader’s behavior and the
characteristics of subordinates and the task. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not much concern about developing knowledge of leader. |
Poor |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not much concern about developing emotional competencies of leader |
Poor |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Focusing on matching leaders’ behavior onto different situation. But the
model do not addressing self-development of leaders |
Good |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Much concern about relationship and atmosphere of organization. In addition,
the model specifies the subordinate characteristics and task characteristics.
But this model is not much focused on developing leader’s own spirit |
Good |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Path-goal theory is focusing on the responsibility of developing
subordinate by providing clear goal, paths. Also it stresses the leader’s
role of removing obstacles, and supporting subordinate. |
Excellent |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Focusing on motivating subordinates based on expectancy theory. |
Excellent |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Suggesting specific methods for developing followers. |
Excellent |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
The theory is quite fit for explaining the needs for developing leaders
in all level.. |
Excellent |
Comments
Path-goal
theory is quite good for applying Teaching organization concept. Because it
explains the importance of responsibility of leaders in developing leaders in
all level, and stresses the motivation factor. However, path-goal theory is not
much concern about developing leader him/herself. The theory is applicable to
teaching organization development.
7. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Leader-Member Exchange Theory |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: LMX theory
addresses leadership as a process centered on the interactions between
leaders and followers. It makes the leader-member relationship the pivotal
concept in the leadership process. By using the concept of Leader-Member
dyads, LMX theory explains how leader should build up better relationship
with his/her subordinate. Identifying the in-group and out-group is critical
for leaders, and he/she has to build up leadership through providing better
relationship with all subordinates. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not much concern about developing knowledge of leader. |
Poor |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Not much concern about developing emotional competencies of leader |
Poor |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Behavior of leaders is quite important in this model. To build up a
better relationship to enhance one’s leadership he/she should concern about
his/her behavior. However, specific methods are not presented |
Fair |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Much concern about relationship and atmosphere of organization. But the
theory explains the dyad of relationship. Even though it is exists, ideally
leader should be fair to every subordinate. |
Good |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
LMX theory is focusing on the responsibility of making good relationship
with subordinates. But the theory does not provide the practical methods how
leader should do. |
Good |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Focusing on motivating subordinates based on leadership dyad. |
Good |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Pointing out the importance of relationship between leader and follower.
However, it does not explain the mechanism of authenticity improvement |
Good |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
The theory is focusing on making better relationship with subordinates in
all level. But it is not an active process but passive one. |
Fair |
Comments
LMX
theory is fairly explaining the importance of relationship between leaders and
subordinates. However, the theory is limited to explain how the leadership is
improved. Then application of this theory for BMBS/Teaching organization is
limited.
8. Transformational Leadership
Theory
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Transformational Leadership |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: Transformational
leadership is concerned with the process of how certain leaders are able to
inspire followers to accomplish great things. This approach stresses that
leaders need to understand and adapt to the needs and motives of followers.
Transformational leaders are recognized as change agents who are good role
models, who can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, who
empower followers to meet higher standards, who act in ways that make other
want to trust them, and who give meaning to organizational life. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Focusing on intellectual stimulation to followers to be creative and
innovative and to challenge their own beliefs. However, the theory does not
provide how leader him/herself develop their own cognitive level |
Good |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Focusing on individualized consideration. But the theory do not explain
the leaders own development of his/her emotional competencies |
Fair |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Behavior of leaders is quite important in this theory. Leaders affect
subordinate by charismatic behaviors. |
Excellent |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Stressing inspirational motivation to setup a better team spirit through
effective communication. Also it explains the importance of the level of
expectation |
Excellent |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Transformational theory is highly stresses the importance of leaders
responsibility in developing followers. |
Excellent |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Focusing on individualized consideration to motivate his/her subordinates |
Excellent |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Focusing on the trust building for fostering collaboration with others |
Excellent |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
The theory is quite matched with the concept of developing all level
followers. |
Excellent |
Comments
Although
transformational leadership theory does not concern much about individual
level, it is best matched with the concept of BMBS/Teaching organization. The
theory explain importance of developing all level subordinates, and critical
roles of leaders’ in motivating his/her followers.
9. Team
Leadership Theory
Leadership
Approach & Theory: Team Leadership Theory |
|||
Concept of the
Theory: The team
leadership model provides a framework in which to study the systematic
factors that contribute to a group’s outcomes or general effectiveness.
Within this approach, the critical function of leadership is to help the
group accomplish its goals by monitoring and diagnosing the group and taking
the requisite action. |
|||
Metric |
Criteria |
Evaluation |
Assessment |
Individual Level
(BMBS model) |
|
|
|
Brain |
Addressing the development of knowledge? |
Not much concern about intellectual development, but it provides a
cognitive guide that helps leaders design and maintain effective teams. . |
Good |
Mind |
Addressing the development of emotion? |
Focusing on diagnosing the problem of team, and providing specific
approach to solve the problem. |
Excellent |
Body |
Addressing the development of psychomotor skill? |
Identifying the specific leadership behaviors with according to mental
model of the situation. |
Excellent |
Intermediary |
|
|
|
Spirit |
Addressing the development of good spirit? |
Stressing mental model for selecting and implementing the appropriate
behavior |
Excellent |
Organizational
Level (Teaching organization) |
|
|
|
Responsibility |
Addressing the development of other leaders (leadership pipeline)? |
Addressed the importance role of team leader, but not much stressed on
training or development of his followers |
Excellent |
Energize / Edge |
Addressing the development of motivation skills? |
Systematic approach for motivation, but it does not specifies the required
action |
Good |
Commitment |
Addressing the development of authenticity |
Focusing on the developing team performance as well as team authenticity |
Excellent |
Applicability |
Applicable to build leader at every level? |
The theory is quite matched with the concept of developing all level
followers. |
Excellent |
Comments
Team
Leadership Theory is good to explain the importance of developing all level
individuals and organizations. However, the team leader’s role is not much
stressed in this theory, many specific actions is provided. Overall, the theory
is one of the best matched theories for BMBS/Teaching organization model.
RESULT / DISCUSSION
I have reviewed leadership theories
by using BMBS/Teaching organization model in this paper. Each leadership
theories have strengths and weaknesses with respect to BMBS/Teaching
organization model. However, transformational leadership theory and team
leadership theory are ranked in top two theories in my analysis. But these two
theories are not perfectly matched with concept of my model. Meanwhile there
are some other leadership theories which are very well matched with
BMBS/Teaching organization model. For example skill’s approach is appropriate
to brain domain, because it’s focusing on developing cognitive ability. Style
approach is matched with body domain in BMBS model. Concept of changing leaders’
behavior in style approach is well supporting the concept of body domain, which
is quite focusing on leader’s behavioral development. On the other hand, in
BMBS/Teaching organization model, there are three domain levels: Individual,
Intermediate, and Organization. Path-goal theory and situational theory is quite
well matched with the level of organization. But the theories are limited in
other levels.
I
agree with that that my model probably not perfect. However, it’s really
important to have my own voice at leadership. Through the leadership
development classes (HRE490, 2007), I learned the most important thing that
there is no one exact solution in developing leadership. And having my own
perspective which is based on my knowledge, experience, and intuition is more
important than following others.
As
Tichy said, having one’s own story and telling it to others to teach them is
the first step of becoming a leader.
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(Collins Business Essentials paperback edition published 2005 ed.). NY 10022:
Harper Collins Publishers Inc.,.
APPENDIX
1. Trait Approach
Table 1. Pat’s criteria vs. Trait approach
|
Intelligence |
Self-confidence |
Determination |
Integrity |
Sociability |
|
Interpersonal Skill |
◎ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Confident |
|
◎ |
|
|
|
|
Poise &
Initiative |
|
|
◎ |
|
|
Analytical & Technical Skills |
◎ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Problem
solving |
◎ |
|
|
|
|
|
Computer
skills |
◎ |
|
|
|
|
Work ethics |
|
|
|
◎ |
|
|
|
Commitment |
|
|
|
◎ |
|
|
Willingness
to do job |
|
|
◎ |
|
|
2. Skills Approach
Table 2. Trajectory of employees’ skills to Mumford skills approach model
|
Kelly |
Danielle |
Patrick |
|
Competencies |
|
|
|
|
|
Problem-Solving |
Good |
Poor: Lousy with
numbers |
Good |
|
Social
Judgment |
Poor: Difficulty
getting along with other employees |
Good |
Poor: Weak on people
side |
|
Knowledge |
Good |
Poor |
Good |
Individual Attributes |
|
|
|
|
|
General
Cognitive ability |
Good |
|
|
|
Crystallized
cognitive ability |
|
|
|
|
Motivation |
Good |
Good |
|
|
Personality |
Poor |
Good |
Good |
Career Experiences |
Kitchen manger |
Front |
Front & Kitchen |
|
Environmental Influences |
1. Andy’s
strong Ego 2. Italian
(Sicily) culture 3. Human skills
are highly required |
3. Style Approach
Table 1. Style Questionnaire of Susan Park |
|||
Key: 1 = Never, 2 = Seldom, 3 = Occasionally,
4 = Often, 5 = Always |
|||
Questions |
Task |
Relationship |
|
1 |
Tells group members
what they are supposed to do |
2 |
|
2 |
Acts friendly with
members of the group |
|
1 |
3 |
Sets standards of
performance for group members |
4 |
|
4 |
Helps others feel comfortable
in the group |
|
2 |
5 |
Makes suggestions
about how to solve problems |
4 |
|
6 |
Responds favorably to
suggestions made by others |
|
2 |
7 |
Makes his or her
perspective clear to others |
5 |
|
8 |
Treats others fairly |
|
3 |
9 |
Develops a plan of
action for the group |
4 |
|
10 |
Behaves in a
predictable manner toward group members |
|
4 |
11 |
Defines role
responsibilities for each group members |
4 |
|
12 |
Communicates actively
with group members |
|
2 |
13 |
Clarifies his or her
own role within the group |
4 |
|
14 |
Shows concern for the
well-being of others |
|
2 |
15 |
Provides a plan for
how the work is to be done |
4 |
|
16 |
Shows flexibility in
making decisions |
|
3 |
17 |
Provides criteria for
what is expected of the group |
4 |
|
18 |
Discloses thoughts and
feelings to group members |
|
2 |
19 |
Encourages group
members to do high-quality work |
4 |
|
20 |
Helps group members
get along |
|
2 |
|
Total |
39 |
24 |
Susan Park’s Leadership Style is Moderately high “Task”
and Low “Relationship” |
4. Situational Approach
According to the basic assumptions of situational leadership,
(Low)
Commitment Level (High) |
D1: Beth Edward (New employee who are very excited but lack
understanding of job requirements) |
D4: Rick Nakano (Seasoned worker with proven abilities and great
devotion to a company) |
D2: Steve Lynch (Skeptical to his/her ability) |
D3: |
|
|
(Low) Competency Level (High) |
Fig. 1 Development Level of Bruce Cannon’s Company Employees
5. Contingency Theory
Fig. 1 Tamara’s Leadership
Requirement
Leader-Member
relationship |
Good |
Poor |
||||||
Task Structure |
High Structure |
Low Structure |
High Structure |
Low Structure |
||||
Position Power |
Strong power |
Weak Power |
Strong power |
Weak Power |
Strong power |
Weak Power |
Strong power |
Weak Power |
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
Preferred Leadership
Style |
Low LPCs Middle LPCs |
High LPCs |
Low LPCs |
6. Path-Goal Theory
Fig. 2 Daniel’s Leadership at The
Copy Center
Subordinate
Characteristics |
Task Characteristics |
Required Leadership |
Daniel’s Behaviors |
Goal/Motivation |
Part-time
worker - Struggling
with their class schedule and part-time job schedule |
Duplicating - Straight
forward - Boring - Repetitive |
Supportive Leadership (Provides
nurturance) |
1) Helpful
with working out schedule conflict 2) Help the
staff make it tolerable 3) Promotes a friendly
work atmosphere 4) Spend a lot
of time conversing informally 5) Making
workers feel significant 6) Involving
staffs |
1)
Paralleling part-time job with full-time studying 2) Feel
doing valuable tasks |
Full-time
worker - Independent - Self-assured - Self-motivated - Self-directed |
Desktop
Publishing - Complex - Requires
creativity - Challenging |
Participative Leadership (Provides
involvement) |
1) Give staffs
a lot of space and leaves them alone 2) Available
when they need help 3) Being
resource person (Participate troubleshooting the problem) 4) Spend less
time than duplicating staff |
1)
Accomplish tasks in a creative way 2)
Autonomous work environments |
7. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Table 1. Leader-Member Exchange Questionnaire
LMX 7 Questionnaire (Carly
Peters at Mils, Smith, & Peters Advertising Agency) |
Jack |
Terri |
Julie |
Sarah |
Do you know
where you stand with you leader? Do you usually know how satisfied your
leader is with what you do? |
5 |
2 |
1 |
3 |
How well
does your leader understand your job problems and needs? |
4 |
1 |
1 |
3 |
How well
does your leader recognize your potential? |
5 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
Regardless
of how much formal authority he or she has built into his or her position,
what are the chances that your leader would use his/her power to help you
solve problems in your work? |
4 |
2 |
2 |
3 |
Again,
regardless of the amount of formal authority your leader has, what are the
chances that he/she would “bail you out” at his or her expense? |
5 |
1 |
2 |
4 |
I have
enough confidence in my leader that I would defend and justify his her
decision if he or she were not present to do so |
5 |
1 |
1 |
4 |
How would
you characterize your working relationship with your leader |
5 |
2 |
1 |
4 |
Total Score |
33 |
10 |
9 |
23 |
Five Point Scale: None
(1) ~ Very High (5) Criteria: Very high
30~35, High=25~29, Moderate=20~24, Low=15~19, Very Low=7-14 |
8. Transformational Leadership
Table 9.2 Leadership Factors
Transformational
Leadership |
Transactional
Leadership |
Laissez-Faire
Leadership |
Factor 1 Idealized
influence Charisma |
Factor 5 Contingent
reward Constructive
Transactions |
Factor7 Laissez-Faire
Nontransactional |
Factor2 Inspirational
Motivation |
Factor 6 Management-by-Exception Active and
Passive corrective Transactions |
|
Factor3 Intellectual
Stimulation |
|
|
Factor 4 Individualized
consideration |
|
|
9. Team Leadership
Fig. 1. Analysis of Characteristics of Jim’s Virtual Team
Characteristics of Team Excellence |
Have |
Don’t have |
Details |
Clear, elevating goal |
○ |
|
Develop and implement
technology innovations for all global business unit |
Results-driven
structure |
|
○ |
No clear team
structure |
Competent team members |
○ |
|
20 competent
professionals |
Unified commitment |
|
○ |
Travel to business
sites at least 2 weeks each month |
Collaborative climate |
|
○ |
No experience work
together on any project |
Standards of
excellence |
|
○ |
No clear performance
standard |
External support |
|
○ |
The have only 1/2 secretary
in NY |
Principled leadership |
|
○ |
Jim is trying but not
effective |
Leadership Theories
1. Trait Approach (특성 이론)
특성이론은 어떤 사람은 리더가 될만한 특별한 특성을 가지고 태어나서 리더가 된다는 이론이다. 리더는 보통사람과 특성에 따라 구별 될 수 있다고 믿어지는데, 이 이론은 20세기 이후 개별 특성이 제한적이라는 비판을 받게 된다.
The trait approach
has its root in leadership theory that suggested that certain people were born
with special traits that made them great leaders. Because it was believed that
leaders and non-leaders could be differentiated by a universal set of traits,
through the 20th century researchers were challenged to identify the
definitive traits of leader
2. Skills Approach
(능력 이론)
능력이론은 리더의 능력에 주안점을 두고 설명하는 이론이다. Katz의 세가지 리더 능력 (기술적 능력, 사회적 능력, 개념화 능력) 이 대표적이며 최근 Mumford 와 그의 동료들이 더욱 발전 시켰다.
The skills approach
is a leader-centered perspective that emphasizes the competencies of leaders.
It is best represented in the early work of Katz (1955) on the three-skill
approaches [technical, human, conceptual] and the more recent work of Mumford
and his colleagues (2000), who initiated the development of comprehensive
skills model of leadership.
3. Style Approach (스타일 이론)
스타일 이론은 위의 두가지 리더쉽 이론과 달리 리더 본인이 아닌, 리더의 행위에 주안점을 두고 있는 이론이다. 스타일 이론에서는 리더의 두가지 큰 행위를 가지고 설명하는데, 첫째는 Task Behavior (일 중심적 행위), 둘째는 Relationship
Behavior (관계 중심적 행위)이다. 각 리더는 일중심적이냐, 관계 중심적이냐에 따라 그 스타일이 다르며 추종자들에게 각 스타일에 따라 영향을 주므로 이 두가지 행위를 잘 조절해야 한다.
The style approach
is strikingly different from the trait approach and skills approach to
leadership because the style approach focuses on what leaders do rather than
who leaders are. It suggests that leaders engage in two primary types of
behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. How leaders combine these
two types of behaviors to influence others is the central focus of the style
approach.
4. Situational
Approach (상황 이론)
상황 이론은 리더가 처한 개별 상황에 따라 리더의 행위가 달라진다는 이론이다.
Situational
leadership is a prescriptive approach to leadership that suggests how leaders
can become effective in many different types of organizational settings
involving a wide variety of organizational task. This approach provides a model
that suggests to leaders how they should behave based on the demands of a
particular situation.
5. Contingency
Theory (임시 이론)
임시 이론은 리더에 중점을 두었던 이론들과 달리, 상황에 따라 적합한 리더가 달라진다는 이론이다.
Contingency theory
represents a shift in leadership research from focusing on only the leader to
looking at the leader in conjunction with the situation in which the leader
works. It is a leader-match theory that emphasizes the importance of matching a
leaders’ style with the demands of a situation.
6. Path-Goal Theory
경로-목적 이론은 리더가 어떻게 추종자들에게 동기부여를 해서 그들이 보다 효율적이고 만족하게 하는지를 설명하기 위해 개발되었다. 경로-목적이론은 임시 이론과 비슷하게 추종자들의 행위와 특성 그리고 일에 따라 리더쉽이 변하는 것을 설명한다.
Path-goal theory
was developed to explain how leaders motivate subordinates to be productive and
satisfied with their work. It is a contingency approach to leadership because
effectiveness depends on the fit between the leader’s behavior and the
characteristics of subordinates and the task.
7. Leader-Member
Exchange Theory
리더-멤버 상호교환 이론은 리더와 추종자간에 ‘관계 프로세스’ 에 중점을 두고 있다. 이 이론은 리더와 멤버간에 관계가 중요한 역할을 한다는 가정하에 리더가 어떻게 하면 추종자들과 보다 나은 관계를 만들어 가느냐에 따라 보다 효율적인 리더쉽이 형성되느냐를 설명한다. 리더에게 In-group (내부 그룹)과 Out-group (외부 그룹)을 나누는 것이 중요한 요인이며 추종자들에게 어떤 관계를 제공하느냐에 따라 리더쉽 차이가 생겨난다는 것을 설명한다.
LMX theory
addresses leadership as a process centered on the interactions between leaders
and followers. It makes the leader-member relationship the pivotal concept in
the leadership process. By using the concept of Leader-Member dyads, LMX theory
explains how leader should build up better relationship with his/her subordinate.
Identifying the in-group and out-group is critical for leaders, and he/she has
to build up leadership through providing better relationship with all
subordinates.
8, Transformational
Leadership Theory
전환 리더쉽 이론은 어떤 리더가 추종자들에게 강력한 동기부여를 통해 그들이 변화하여 보다 나은 일을 이루어 낼 수 있도록 하는 것을 설명한다. 이 이론은 리더가 추종자들의 요구와 동기를 파악하고 반영하는 것에 중점을 두며, 리더 스스로 추종자들의 역할 모델이 되고, 비전을 제시하며, 추종자들에게 책임을 부여하여 리더를 믿도록 하면 조직생활에 의미를 찾도록 하는 것을 설명한다.
Transformational
leadership is concerned with the process of how certain leaders are able to
inspire followers to accomplish great things. This approach stresses that
leaders need to understand and adapt to the needs and motives of followers.
Transformational leaders are recognized as change agents who are good role
models, who can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, who
empower followers to meet higher standards, who act in ways that make other
want to trust them, and who give meaning to organizational life.
9. Team Leadership
Theory
팀 리더쉽 모델은 조직의 성과에 영향을 끼는 시스템적인 요인들을 설명한다. 팀 리더쉽 이론은 팀의 목표를 이루기 위해 팀원들의 성과를 모니터링 하고 진단하여 적절한 대응을 하는 것이 리더의 중요한 역할이란 것을 설명한다.
The team leadership
model provides a framework in which to study the systematic factors that
contribute to a group’s outcomes or general effectiveness. Within this
approach, the critical function of leadership is to help the group accomplish
its goals by monitoring and diagnosing the group and taking the requisite
action.
10. Psychodynamic
Approach
정신분석학적 접근은 리더와 추종자 개인의 Personality (개인특성)을 진단하는 것에 기반을 두고 있으며, 자아(Ego) 상태 분석 및 프로이트와 융의 심리학적 분석을 토대로 한 MBTI Personality 분석을 사용하여 리더쉽의 다른 점을 이해하고 현실에 적용하는 것을 설명한다.
The psychodynamic
approach is based on assessments of the personalities of leaders and followers.
It differs from approaches and models that begin by studying and summarizing
the traits, behaviors, skills, or styles of leaders. Several ways of
identifying personality characteristics are available, including the ego state
model from transactional analysis and the personality types of Freude and Jung,
as interpreted by Maccoby (2003) and the MBTI, respectively
11. Women Leadership
Beginning in the
1970s researchers started investigating gender differences in leadership.
Investigations into leadership style have revealed that women are somewhat more
likely to use democratic and transformational styles than men. Research looking
at leadership effectiveness indicates a slight disadvantage fro women in
masculine domains, a slight effectiveness advantage for women in feminine
domains, and a greater use by women of effective transformational and
contingent reward behaviors.
12. Culture and
Leadership
Since World War II
there has been a dramatic increase in globalization throughout the world.
Globalization has created a need for leaders with greater understanding of
cultural differences and increased competencies in cross-cultural communication
and practice. Culture is defined as the commonly shared beliefs, values, and
norms of a group of people. Two factors that can inhibit cultural awareness are
Ethnocentrisism and prejudice. Ethnocentrisism is the human tendency to place
one’s own group at the center of one’s observations of others and the world. It
is problematic for leaders because it prevents them from fully understanding
the world of others. Similarly, prejudice consists of judgments about others
based on fixed attitudes and unsubstantiated data. Prejudice has a negative
impact because it is self-orented and inhibits leaders from seeing the many
facets and qualities of others.
13. Leadership
Ethics
Ethical theory
provides a set of principles that guide leaders in making decisions about how
to act and how to be morally decent. In the Western tradition, ethical theories
typically are divided into two kinds: theories about conduct and theories about character.
Theories about conduct emphasize the consequences of leader behavior
(teleological approach) or the rules that govern their behavior (deontological
approach). Virtue-based theories focus on the character of leaders, and they
stress qualities such as courage, honesty, fairness, and fidelity.
14. Integrative
(Holistic) Leadership Theory
Reference: Northouse,
Peter G., Leadership Theory and Practice: theory and practice, 4th
ed., Sage Publication, Inc. 2007, ISBN 1-4129-4161-X
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